二戰｜西班牙內戰

1930年代的集體安全體系

細閱資料E及F。

資料E

下文取材自《以公理爭強權：顧維鈞傳》。顧維鈞為近代中國的外交家，曾代表中國出席巴黎和會，為中國駐國際聯盟的最高代表。

1937年8月13日，日本將侵華戰爭擴大至上海。國民政府認為，列強對上海戰事的關注必定超過對華北戰事的關注，因此決定盡可能利用國聯爭取國際社會的支持，國聯畢竟是中國能將日本侵華事實公之於世的唯一的國際組織。

作為中國駐國聯的首席代表，顧維鈞又一次肩負代表中國走上國聯講壇的重任。國聯大會開會前，顧維鈞會見國聯秘書長，要求國聯對日本的侵略行為予以制裁，但秘書長表示，在必須維護各成員國利益的前提下，制裁在目前是無論如何也辦不到的。在明白中國不能指望國聯採取像制裁那樣強硬的措施後，顧維鈞退而希望通過中國的申訴，國聯起碼能在道義上支持中國，發表一個反對侵略者的宣言。而實際上，要國聯做到這點，也不是一件容易的事。

9月13日，國聯大會開幕，中國的申訴被列入會議議程。顧維鈞要求在大會上第一個發言，以便讓各國可以首先討論中國的申訴。他站在國聯講壇上，向各國發問：「能讓日本一直這樣漠視國際法和條約義務而不受到任何懲罰嗎？我們把違反當作必然嗎？我們準備眼睜睜地看着它無節制地伸展觸鬚、破壞世界的和平和秩序嗎？」發言結束後，英、法、蘇等國代表紛紛向顧維鈞表示祝賀。法國哈瓦斯通訊社報道說，「大會議場內，產生異常熱烈之印象，不僅顧氏演語畢後，自講壇退席時掌聲雷動，嗣後由譯員譯成法語之後，聽者亦大為鼓掌，此為國聯會議場中向所未有」。

然而，這些廉價的讚揚於事無補。在實質性問題上，國聯怯於表明鮮明的態度，只願息事寧人地進行消極調停，甚至對譴責日本為侵略者都畏首畏尾。9月下旬，侵華日軍對上海、南京等中國城市非軍事目標肆意轟炸，造成中國平民重大傷亡。顧維鈞在勸說法國政府就此向日本提出抗議的同時，決定利用這一時機要求國聯宣佈日本為侵略者，並採取有效措施予以制止。9月30日，他草擬了一個宣佈日本為侵略者的決議草案，準備向國聯的顧問委員會提出。但是，以英國及法國為主導的國聯秘書處生怕會刺激日本，要求中國撤回這一決議草案。

資料F

以下取材自一幅1936年刊登的漫畫，站於漫畫中間的男子為英國外相艾登。漫畫中的人物由左至右分別為希特拉、墨索里尼、法西斯主義者佛朗哥，以及西班牙總統阿薩尼亞、史太林及西班牙總理卡瓦列羅。漫畫的標題是：「西班牙的搖搖板」。

艾登：「這或許是個種新的『勢力平衡』，但這絕對不是『集體安全』。」

漫畫的男子(左至右顯示)
希特拉		阿薩尼亞
墨索里尼	艾登	史太林
佛朗哥		卡瓦列羅

(a) 國際聯盟對中國持什麼態度？試參考資料E，解釋你的答案。

(4分)

(b) 資料F的作者對1930年代後半期的歐洲局勢是否感到悲觀？試從資料F援引相關線索，解釋你的答案。

(3分)

(c) 你是否同意國家利益是破壞集體安全體系的最重要因素？試參考資料E及F，並就你所知，解釋你的答案。

(8分)

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The Collective Security System of the 1930s

Read Sources E and F.

Source E

The following text is excerpted from "Striving for Power with Principles: The Biography of Gu Weijun." Gu Weijun was a modern Chinese diplomat who represented China at the Paris Peace Conference and served as China's highest representative to the League of Nations.

On August 13, 1937, Japan expanded its invasion of China to Shanghai. The Nationalist government believed that the great powers would pay more attention to the conflict in Shanghai than to the situation in North China. Therefore, it decided to leverage the League of Nations as much as possible to gain support from the international community, as the League was the only international organization through which China could publicize Japan's aggression.

As China's chief representative to the League of Nations, Gu Weijun once again bore the responsibility of representing China on the League's platform. Before the League Assembly convened, Gu Weijun met with the Secretary-General of the League, requesting that the League impose sanctions on Japan's aggressive actions. However, the Secretary-General stated that sanctions were impossible under the premise of maintaining the interests of member states. Realizing that China could not expect the League to take strong measures like sanctions, Gu Weijun hoped that through China's complaint, the League would at least offer moral support by issuing a declaration against the aggressor. In reality, achieving this from the League was not an easy task.

On September 13, the League Assembly opened, and China's complaint was included in the agenda. Gu Weijun requested to speak first so that countries could discuss China's complaint right away. Standing at the League's podium, he asked the nations: "Can we allow Japan to continue to ignore international law and treaty obligations without any punishment? Do we take violations as inevitable? Are we prepared to watch it extend its tentacles unrestrainedly, destroying world peace and order?" After his speech, representatives from Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and other countries congratulated Gu Weijun. The French Havas News Agency reported that "the conference hall produced an exceptionally enthusiastic impression; not only did the applause thunder after Gu's speech, but even after it was translated into French, the audience applauded greatly, which had never happened in the League Assembly before."

However, these cheap praises were of little help. On substantive issues, the League hesitated to take a clear stance, preferring to conduct passive mediation to avoid conflict, even shying away from condemning Japan as the aggressor. In late September, Japanese forces indiscriminately bombed non-military targets in Chinese cities like Shanghai and Nanjing, causing significant civilian casualties. While persuading the French government to protest Japan's actions, Gu Weijun decided to seize this opportunity to demand that the League declare Japan as an aggressor and take effective measures to stop it. On September 30, he drafted a resolution declaring Japan an aggressor, intending to submit it to the League's Advisory Committee. However, the League Secretariat, led by Britain and France, feared provoking Japan and requested that China withdraw the resolution.

Source F

The following is taken from a cartoon published in 1936. The man in the center of the cartoon is British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden. The figures in the cartoon, from left to right, are Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, the fascist Francisco Franco, Spanish President Manuel Azaña, Joseph Stalin, and Spanish Prime Minister Francisco Caballero. The title of the cartoon is: "The See-Saw of Spain."

Eden: "This may be a new kind of 'balance of power,' but it is definitely not 'collective security.'"

Characters in the Cartoon (from left to right)
Hitler		Azaña
Mussolini	Eden	Stalin
Franco		Caballero

(a) What was the attitude of the League of Nations towards China? Explain your answer with reference to Source E.

(4 marks)

(b) Did the author of Source F feel pessimistic about the situation in Europe in the late 1930s? Cite relevant clues from Source F to explain your answer.

(3 marks)

(c) Do you agree that national interests are the most important factor undermining the collective security system? Explain your answer with reference to Sources E and F, and your own knowledge.

(8 marks)

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Answer